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The possibility that friendship can survive or even be strengthened by such excruciating honesty is inspirational and opens up floodgates of introspection. Please consider making a donation today. Winners and Losers Winners and Losers is a staged conversation that embraces the ruthless logic of capitalism, and tests its impact on our closest personal relationships as well as our most intimate experiences of self.
Another area where we found multiple evaluation studies was economics. One systematic review of guidance for presenting economic evidence to policymakers found 31 sets of economic reporting guidelines and described them as generally low-quality because of a lack of systematic evidence Sullivan et al. Efforts were made to determine the needs of policymakers and use that information to design the presentation format, but they identified a particular lack of research on communicating economic principles to non-specialist audiences.
In a different domain, one study presented the safety risks of a building policy across multiple locations. They tested eight risk communication formats and found some versions led to more comprehension but less policy support Bruine de Bruin et al. Hildon et al. This finding is common in the communication literature and bears repeating: when seeking ideal message formats, designs that lead to the most comprehension may not change beliefs or behavior most effectively Akl et al. For a communicator seeking to inform rather than persuade, objective comprehension may be the most appropriate outcome measure, but how maximizing comprehension affects the decision-making process and behavior is poorly understood.
In summary, the third review uncovered some evidence for communication design features such as graphical complexity and information omission, but most of the literature on evaluating messages was on science communication rather than policy option communication, and therefore did not directly address trade-offs between coverage and comprehensibility.
The existing evaluations mostly focus on healthcare policy, climate change, and economic forecasts, particularly the economics of healthcare policy. Additionally, individual-level communication work has evaluated graphical McInerny et al. Overall, there is little evidence on the best formats for communicating potential policy impacts.
All communicators must select what information to include and omit, but there is currently little guidance for how to select policy options and their potential outcomes while minimizing bias. The existing guidance for communicators is shallow, and when evidence-based relies on the literature on individual-level communication.
Finally, there is a critical need for evaluation of communication methods to describe the potential harms and benefits of policy options. Based on the first review, current attempts at balanced policy outcome communications typically resolve the core tension of coverage and comprehensibility by reducing coverage: omitting information that could nonetheless be important to some decision-makers.
Other communications achieve high coverage only through long and complex presentations, e. Only a few policy communications appear to balance coverage with comprehensibility well in a brief summary. In Table 3 , we analyze three such examples based on the conceptual framework of four challenges identified in Review 1.
It illustrates the expected changes in four global measures based on two future emissions scenarios, RCP 2.
These communications are designed for policymakers: in this case, senior teachers or principals who implement education policies in schools. The final example comes from health care. The MAGIC group produces summaries of the potential impacts of health interventions, and these are presented as interactive summaries online and published for use by policymakers and individual clinicians Fig.
All three figures approached the challenges in different ways. Without user testing, it is unknown whether they were successful in communicating the information required by the target audiences. However, these figures appear to achieve high coverage while remaining concise and comprehensible. Individuals faced with personal choices that will affect their lives are increasingly provided with balanced, clear, and concise summaries of the likely impacts of their decisions.
In contrast, such summaries are rarely available to policymakers despite the large and wide-ranging impacts of policy decisions. This gap likely stems from the difficulties in representing heterogeneous impacts, diverse outcomes with different metrics, outcomes over long time scales, and large uncertainties.
However, the advances in high-quality and ethical decision support for individuals came from steady research, practical implementation, and evaluation. We hope that recognition of the particular challenges of policy-level communication will spur future research and guidelines to better support those making policy-level decisions.
Providing balanced and comprehensible summaries of detailed policy outcomes is difficult, and one unresolved challenge is how best to approach the necessary omission of information that might be important to some decision makers to keep the summary concise and comprehensible. However, measuring only message comprehension may not capture reactions to missing information, whose absence might not be noticed. We found very few studies that experimentally evaluated the effectiveness of communications about policy options.
In addition, these studies typically aggregated across recipient characteristics that can affect comprehension, such as motivations, numeracy, graph literacy, and demographics see Paling, ; Rovner et al. As the evidence base expands, we expect further nuance rather than the discovery of universally effective communication techniques.
The three reviews in this paper combine configural, conceptual, and aggregative methods Gough et al. The review methods nonetheless introduced limitations. Conducting the first and second reviews was difficult because much of the relevant material was in the grey literature, which is hard to scope. It was unrealistic to review every form of policy option communication used in governments and organizations around the world.
A related limitation is that all of the reviews were based on English-language results due to a lack of translation capability. This limited the representativeness and generalizability of the reviews of existing communication examples and organizational guidelines. The limited scope was less likely to affect the empirical evaluation review as most international scientific journals are currently in English. However, given that the field of policy-outcome communication is not currently well-defined, search terms that would locate academic papers were difficult to exhaustively identify, meaning that the evaluation literature would likely benefit from additional reviews.
Overall, we suggest that the ideal balanced communication would provide appropriate detail in a quickly and easily understood format to help citizens and policy decision-makers apply their own values and priorities to decisions. Whether or not this ideal is achievable in a particular domain, specifying the goal can reveal the empirical questions that guide future progress.
We identified four key challenges affecting the communication about impacts of policy options: broad and heterogeneous effects, outcomes with different metrics, potentially long timescales, and large uncertainties. These challenges increase the inherent tension between coverage and comprehensibility in messages. The current evidence on resolving this tension is insufficient to deliver confident recommendations to policy communicators see Alonso-Coello et al.
We hope that identifying these challenges will stimulate the development of effective, non-partisan communications and their evaluation, and thereby support citizens and diverse policy decision-makers in understanding the possible impacts of policies.
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